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Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) are a set of regulations and procedures for flying
aircraft whereby navigation and obstacle clearance is maintained with reference to aircraft instruments only and separation from other aircraft is provided by Air Traffic Control. It is an alternative to visual flight rules (VFR), where the aviator is ultimately responsible for navigation, obstacle clearance and traffic separation using the
see-and-avoid concept. The primary benefit of these regulations allow an aircraft to safely fly through
clouds, which is not permitted under VFR.
The vast majority of commercial traffic (any flight for hire) and all scheduled air carriers operate exclusively under IFR. Commercial aircraft providing sight seeing flights, aerial photography, or lift services for parachute jumping usually operate under VFR.
Separation
The distance by which an aircraft avoids obstacles or other aircraft is termed
separation. The most important concept of IFR flying is that separation is maintained regardless of meteorological visibility conditions. In
controlled airspace, Air Traffic Control (ATC) separates IFR aircraft from obstacles and other IFR and known VFR aircraft by applying a flight
clearance based on route, time, distance, speed, and altitude differences between aircraft. ATC monitors IFR flights by relying either on radar or aircraft position reports. Aircraft position reports are traditionally sent as voice radio transmissions, but increasingly also as electronic data exchanges. Aircraft position reports are not necessary if ATC has an aircraft in radar contact. In the United States a flight operating under IFR is required to fall back to position reports if advised
radar contact lost.
IFR flights require an ATC
clearance for each part of the flight. A clearance always specifies a
clearance limit, which is the farthest the aircraft can fly without a new clearance. In addition, a clearance typically provides a heading or route to follow, altitude, and communication parameters, such as frequencies and transponder codes. An aircraft operating
VFR must also obtain a clearance to enter
Airspace classes airspace, and is required to maintain an assigned heading or altitude restriction as long as it does not conflict with the safe operation of the aircraft.
In uncontrolled airspace, IFR aircraft do not require clearances, and they separate themselves from each other by using charted minimum altitudes to avoid terrain and obstacles, standard cruising altitudes to avoid aircraft flying in different directions, and radio reports over mandatory locations.
In the United States and Canada, airspace from 18,000 to 60,000 feet (5,586 to 18,288 meters) is designated as
Airspace classes, requiring an IFR clearance for all aircraft. In other countries class A airspace begins higher or lower. For example, in France class A airspace begins at 19,500 feet (5,850 meters).
In the United States even when on a filed IFR flight plan, if conditions permit the pilot is responsible to maintain a watch for, and avoid other air traffic and obstructions.
Weather
One main purpose of IFR is the safe operation of aircraft in
Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). The weather is considered to be IMC when it does not meet the minimum requirements for Visual meteorological conditions. To operate safely in IMC , a pilot controls the aircraft relying on flight instruments, and ATC provides
separation.
It is important to not to confuse IFR with IMC. The vast majority of IFR flying is conducted under Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC). Any time a flight is operating in VMC, the crew is responsible for seeing and avoiding other traffic, however, since the flight is conducted under Instrument Flight Rules, ATC still provides separation services.
During flight under IFR, there are no visibility requirements, and as such flying through clouds is permitted. There are still minimum conditions that must be present in order for the aircraft to take off and land; these will vary according to the type of navigation aids available, the location and height of terrain and obstructions in the vicinity of the airport, equipment on the aircraft, and according to qualifications of the crew. For example, landing at mountain airports such as Reno (
Reno-Tahoe_International_Airport) offer significantly different instrument approaches for aircraft landing on the same runway, but from opposite directions. Aircraft approaching from the north must make visual contact with the airport at a higher altitude than a flight approaching from the south, because of rapidly rising terrain south of the airport. This higher alltitude allows a flight crew to start a climb earlier in case landing is not feasible.
Although large airliners and, increasingly, smaller aircraft now carry their own terrain- and collision-avoidance systems such as TCAS, these are primarily backup systems providing a last layer of defense if a sequence of errors or omissions causes a dangerous situation.
Navigation
Under IFR, the primary means of navigation are either via radio beacons on the ground, such as
VHF omnidirectional ranges and
Non-directional beacons, or
Global Positioning System. In areas of radar coverage, ATC may also assign headings to IFR aircraft, also known as
radar vectors.
Radar vectors are the primary method for ATC to provide separation between aircraft for landing.
Modern
Flight Management System have evolved sufficiently to allow a crew to plan a flight not only as to route and altitude, but to specific time of arrival at specific locations. This capability is used in several trial projects experimenting with
four dimensional approach clearances for commercial aircraft, with time as the fourth dimension. These clearances allow ATC to optimize the arrival of aircraft at major airports, which increases airport capacity, and uses less fuel providing monetary and environmental benefits to airlines and the public at large respectively.
Procedures
There are three stages to an IFR flight: departure, en route, and approach. For each stage there are standard, published procedures to allow IFR aircraft to move in a safe, orderly way, from the moment the wheels leave the runway to the moment they touch down again. These procedures also allow an IFR aircraft to complete a flight predictably in case of communication failure (
lost-comm) with ATC, with default altitudes and headings for every stage. An IFR flight typically starts with an IFR clearance, which specifies the departure instructions, and any modifications to the route. Here is an example of an IFR clearance, for a Cessna aircraft traveling from Palo Alto airport (KPAO) to Stockton airport (KSCK).
{| class="wikitable"|-| "Cessna 6253G is cleared to Stockton Airport. On takeoff, turn right heading zero-six-zero within one mile of the airport. Radar Vectors San Jose, Victor-334, SUNOL, Victor-195, Manteca, direct. Climb and maintain 3,000 expect 5,000 five minutes after departure. Departure frequency is 121.3, squawk 4263." Note: Not to be used for Real World Navigation|}
Detailed explanation:
"Cessna 6253G" - Verifies that only this specific aircraft is cleared.
"is cleared to Stockton Airport." - Clearance Limit: the farthest destination the aircraft is allowed to go under IMC (in most cases it is the destination airport).
"On takeoff, turn right heading zero-six-zero within one mile of the airport." - The Pilot is expected to execute the turn without further ATC prompting.
"Radar Vectors San Jose" - The departure controller will provide directional guidance to the San Jose VOR.
"Victor-334, SUNOL, Victor-195, Manteca, direct." - After arriving at the San Jose VOR, the pilot will likely resume navigation without ATC prompts along the described airways and intersection to the Manteca VOR and then direct to the destination airport.
"Climb and maintain 3,000 ..." - After takeoff, climb to an altitude of 3000 feet above sea level.
"... expect 5,000 five minutes after departure." - Your final altitude assignment is probably going to be 5000 feet above sea level. However, you must follow actual ATC altitude assignments throughout the flight. This portion of the clearance provides a backup if communications are lost, allowing you to proceed to climb an maintain 5000 feet.
"Departure frequency is 121.3, ..." - Contact with NORCAL Departure on the specified communication frequency, after Palo Alto Tower tells you to switch.
"... squawk 4263." - Program your transponder to 4263 so that ATC can positively identify you on radar.
Departures are described in an IFR clearance issued by ATC prior to takeoff. The departure clearance may contain an assigned heading, one or more waypoints, and an initial altitude to fly. The clearance can also specify a
departure procedure (DP), or
standard instrument departure (SID) that should be followed.
En route flight is described by IFR charts showing navigation aids, fixes, and standard routes called
Airway (aviation). Aircraft with appropriate navigational equipment such as GPS, are also often cleared for a
direct-to routing, where only the destination, or a few navigational waypoints are used to describe the route that the flight will follow. ATC will assign altitudes in its initial clearance or amendments thereto, and navigational charts indicate minimum safe altitudes for airways.
The approach portion of an IFR flight may begin with a
Standard Terminal Arrival Route (STAR), describing common routes to fly to arrive at an
initial approach fix (IAF) from which an instrument approach commences.
Instrument approaches are categorized as
precision and
non-precision. Despite the names, a
precision approach simply indicates that vertical guidance (as well as lateral guidance) is being used.
non-precision indicates only lateral guidance.
In either case, an instrument approach will terminate either in visual conditions sufficient for a normal landing of the airplane, or in a
missed approach if such conditions are not encountered in time. The point at which the crew of an aircraft has to make a decision to either proceed visually, or "miss" the approach is called either the Decision altitude (DA) for precision approaches, or missed approach point (MAP) for non-precision approaches. During precision approaches the altitude of the aircraft is determined by the navigational instruments. For non-precision approaches the crew will descend to specific altitudes during the approach procedure, with the final altitude termed the Instrument approach#Minimum Descent Height or Altitude (MDA).
Some commercial aircraft are equipped with automatic landing systems that allow the aircraft to land without transitioning from instruments to visual conditions for a normal landing. Such Autoland operations require specialized equipment, procedures and training, and involve the aircraft, airport, and the crew. Autoland is the only way some major airports such as Charles de Gaulle International Airport remain operational every day of the year. Some modern aircraft are equipped with
enhanced vision systems based on infrared sensors, that provide a day-like visual environment and allow operations in conditions and at airports that would otherwise not be suitable for a landing. Commercial aircraft also frequently use such equipment for takeoffs when
takeoff minimums are not met.For example, Southwest Airlines flies
Head Up Display (HUD) equipped Boeing 737 aircraft to fog-prone airports such as Sacramento International (
KSMF), allowing flights to take off when they would otherwise be unable to do so.
Documents describing the approach procedure are also frequently called
approach plate in reference to the plate-like appearance of single-page sheet that it is printed on.
An instrument approach that terminates in a
missed approach will continue using
missed approach procedure information shown on the approach procedure. Typically it describes a transition to a nearby navigational fix, from which the instrument approach can be attempted again. In practice an approach that terminates in a missed approach rarely flies the missed approach procedure
as published. Instead, ATC will assign headings and altitudes that will weave the aircraft into the arriving traffic for a repeated approach attempt. The crew may also request an alternate destination, either a previously stated
alternate airport, or other suitable airport considering the prevailing weather conditions.
Qualifications
To fly under IFR, a pilot must have an
instrument rating, and must meet recency of experience requirements. In the United States, these recency of experience requirements include six
instrument approaches, NAVAID intercepting and tracking, and
hold (aviation) procedures in the past six months. The aircraft must also be equipped and type-certified for instrument flight, and the related navigational equipment must have been inspected within a specific period of time prior to the instrument flight.
The UK differs from pilot licensing practice in the U.S. In the UK any pilot can decide to which flight rules he adheres given that the meteorological conditions for those rules are met. The pilot does need an instrument rating to fly in instrument meteorological conditions, and under IFR in controlled airspace. The upshot of this is that non-instrument qualified pilots can elect to fly under IFR in visual meteorological conditions outside controlled airspace. Compared to the rest of the world the UK's flight crew licensing regime is somewhat unusual in this respect by licensing for meteorological conditions and airspace, rather than flight rules. As a partial alternative to the
instrument rating, the UK issues an "IMC rating", the privileges of which include flight under IFR in controlled (classes D and E) airspace and flight outside controlled airspace in instrument meteorological conditions.
References
See also
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) are a set of regulations and procedures for flying aircraft whereby navigation and obstacle clearance is maintained with reference to aircraft instruments only and separation from other aircraft is provided by
Air Traffic Control. It is an alternative to visual flight rules (VFR), where the
aviator is ultimately responsible for navigation, obstacle clearance and traffic separation using the
see-and-avoid concept. The primary benefit of these regulations allow an aircraft to safely fly through
clouds, which is not permitted under VFR.
The vast majority of commercial traffic (any flight for hire) and all scheduled air carriers operate exclusively under IFR. Commercial aircraft providing sight seeing flights, aerial photography, or lift services for parachute jumping usually operate under VFR.
Separation
The distance by which an aircraft avoids obstacles or other aircraft is termed
separation. The most important concept of IFR flying is that separation is maintained regardless of meteorological visibility conditions. In controlled airspace, Air Traffic Control (ATC) separates IFR aircraft from obstacles and other IFR and known VFR aircraft by applying a flight
clearance based on route, time, distance, speed, and altitude differences between aircraft. ATC monitors IFR flights by relying either on
radar or aircraft position reports. Aircraft position reports are traditionally sent as voice radio transmissions, but increasingly also as electronic data exchanges. Aircraft position reports are not necessary if ATC has an aircraft in radar contact. In the United States a flight operating under IFR is required to fall back to position reports if advised
radar contact lost.
IFR flights require an ATC
clearance for each part of the flight. A clearance always specifies a
clearance limit, which is the farthest the aircraft can fly without a new clearance. In addition, a clearance typically provides a heading or route to follow, altitude, and communication parameters, such as frequencies and transponder codes. An aircraft operating VFR must also obtain a clearance to enter
Airspace classes airspace, and is required to maintain an assigned heading or altitude restriction as long as it does not conflict with the safe operation of the aircraft.
In uncontrolled airspace, IFR aircraft do not require clearances, and they separate themselves from each other by using charted minimum altitudes to avoid terrain and obstacles, standard cruising altitudes to avoid aircraft flying in different directions, and radio reports over mandatory locations.
In the United States and Canada, airspace from 18,000 to 60,000 feet (5,586 to 18,288 meters) is designated as
Airspace classes, requiring an IFR clearance for all aircraft. In other countries class A airspace begins higher or lower. For example, in France class A airspace begins at 19,500 feet (5,850 meters).
In the United States even when on a filed IFR flight plan, if conditions permit the pilot is responsible to maintain a watch for, and avoid other air traffic and obstructions.
Weather
One main purpose of IFR is the safe operation of aircraft in
Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). The weather is considered to be IMC when it does not meet the minimum requirements for Visual meteorological conditions. To operate safely in IMC , a pilot controls the aircraft relying on flight instruments, and ATC provides
separation.
It is important to not to confuse IFR with IMC. The vast majority of IFR flying is conducted under Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC). Any time a flight is operating in VMC, the crew is responsible for seeing and avoiding other traffic, however, since the flight is conducted under Instrument Flight Rules, ATC still provides separation services.
During flight under IFR, there are no visibility requirements, and as such flying through clouds is permitted. There are still minimum conditions that must be present in order for the aircraft to take off and land; these will vary according to the type of navigation aids available, the location and height of terrain and obstructions in the vicinity of the airport, equipment on the aircraft, and according to qualifications of the crew. For example, landing at mountain airports such as Reno (Reno-Tahoe_International_Airport) offer significantly different instrument approaches for aircraft landing on the same runway, but from opposite directions. Aircraft approaching from the north must make visual contact with the airport at a higher altitude than a flight approaching from the south, because of rapidly rising terrain south of the airport. This higher alltitude allows a flight crew to start a climb earlier in case landing is not feasible.
Although large airliners and, increasingly, smaller aircraft now carry their own terrain- and collision-avoidance systems such as TCAS, these are primarily backup systems providing a last layer of defense if a sequence of errors or omissions causes a dangerous situation.
Navigation
Under IFR, the primary means of navigation are either via radio beacons on the ground, such as VHF omnidirectional ranges and Non-directional beacons, or Global Positioning System. In areas of radar coverage, ATC may also assign headings to IFR aircraft, also known as
radar vectors.
Radar vectors are the primary method for ATC to provide separation between aircraft for landing.
Modern Flight Management System have evolved sufficiently to allow a crew to plan a flight not only as to route and altitude, but to specific time of arrival at specific locations. This capability is used in several trial projects experimenting with
four dimensional approach clearances for commercial aircraft, with time as the fourth dimension. These clearances allow ATC to optimize the arrival of aircraft at major airports, which increases airport capacity, and uses less fuel providing monetary and environmental benefits to airlines and the public at large respectively.
- Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
- ADS-B
Procedures
There are three stages to an IFR flight: departure, en route, and approach. For each stage there are standard, published procedures to allow IFR aircraft to move in a safe, orderly way, from the moment the wheels leave the runway to the moment they touch down again. These procedures also allow an IFR aircraft to complete a flight predictably in case of communication failure (
lost-comm) with ATC, with default altitudes and headings for every stage. An IFR flight typically starts with an IFR clearance, which specifies the departure instructions, and any modifications to the route. Here is an example of an IFR clearance, for a Cessna aircraft traveling from Palo Alto airport (KPAO) to Stockton airport (KSCK).
{| class="wikitable"|-| "Cessna 6253G is cleared to Stockton Airport. On takeoff, turn right heading zero-six-zero within one mile of the airport. Radar Vectors San Jose, Victor-334, SUNOL, Victor-195, Manteca, direct. Climb and maintain 3,000 expect 5,000 five minutes after departure. Departure frequency is 121.3, squawk 4263." Note: Not to be used for Real World Navigation|}
Detailed explanation:
"Cessna 6253G" - Verifies that only this specific aircraft is cleared.
"is cleared to Stockton Airport." - Clearance Limit: the farthest destination the aircraft is allowed to go under IMC (in most cases it is the destination airport).
"On takeoff, turn right heading zero-six-zero within one mile of the airport." - The Pilot is expected to execute the turn without further ATC prompting.
"Radar Vectors San Jose" - The departure controller will provide directional guidance to the San Jose VOR.
"Victor-334, SUNOL, Victor-195, Manteca, direct." - After arriving at the San Jose VOR, the pilot will likely resume navigation without ATC prompts along the described airways and intersection to the Manteca VOR and then direct to the destination airport.
"Climb and maintain 3,000 ..." - After takeoff, climb to an altitude of 3000 feet above sea level.
"... expect 5,000 five minutes after departure." - Your final altitude assignment is probably going to be 5000 feet above sea level. However, you must follow actual ATC altitude assignments throughout the flight. This portion of the clearance provides a backup if communications are lost, allowing you to proceed to climb an maintain 5000 feet.
"Departure frequency is 121.3, ..." - Contact with NORCAL Departure on the specified communication frequency, after Palo Alto Tower tells you to switch.
"... squawk 4263." - Program your transponder to 4263 so that ATC can positively identify you on radar.
Departures are described in an IFR clearance issued by ATC prior to takeoff. The departure clearance may contain an assigned heading, one or more waypoints, and an initial altitude to fly. The clearance can also specify a
departure procedure (DP), or
standard instrument departure (SID) that should be followed.
En route flight is described by IFR charts showing navigation aids, fixes, and standard routes called
Airway (aviation). Aircraft with appropriate navigational equipment such as GPS, are also often cleared for a
direct-to routing, where only the destination, or a few navigational waypoints are used to describe the route that the flight will follow. ATC will assign altitudes in its initial clearance or amendments thereto, and navigational charts indicate minimum safe altitudes for airways.
The approach portion of an IFR flight may begin with a Standard Terminal Arrival Route (STAR), describing common routes to fly to arrive at an initial approach fix (IAF) from which an
instrument approach commences.
Instrument approaches are categorized as
precision and
non-precision. Despite the names, a
precision approach simply indicates that vertical guidance (as well as lateral guidance) is being used.
non-precision indicates only lateral guidance.
In either case, an instrument approach will terminate either in visual conditions sufficient for a normal landing of the airplane, or in a missed approach if such conditions are not encountered in time. The point at which the crew of an aircraft has to make a decision to either proceed visually, or "miss" the approach is called either the
Decision altitude (DA) for precision approaches, or missed approach point (MAP) for non-precision approaches. During precision approaches the altitude of the aircraft is determined by the navigational instruments. For non-precision approaches the crew will descend to specific altitudes during the approach procedure, with the final altitude termed the
Instrument approach#Minimum Descent Height or Altitude (MDA).
Some commercial aircraft are equipped with automatic landing systems that allow the aircraft to land without transitioning from instruments to visual conditions for a normal landing. Such Autoland operations require specialized equipment, procedures and training, and involve the aircraft, airport, and the crew. Autoland is the only way some major airports such as Charles de Gaulle International Airport remain operational every day of the year. Some modern aircraft are equipped with enhanced vision systems based on infrared sensors, that provide a day-like visual environment and allow operations in conditions and at airports that would otherwise not be suitable for a landing. Commercial aircraft also frequently use such equipment for takeoffs when
takeoff minimums are not met.For example, Southwest Airlines flies
Head Up Display (HUD) equipped Boeing 737 aircraft to fog-prone airports such as Sacramento International (
KSMF), allowing flights to take off when they would otherwise be unable to do so.
Documents describing the approach procedure are also frequently called
approach plate in reference to the plate-like appearance of single-page sheet that it is printed on.
An instrument approach that terminates in a
missed approach will continue using
missed approach procedure information shown on the approach procedure. Typically it describes a transition to a nearby navigational fix, from which the instrument approach can be attempted again. In practice an approach that terminates in a missed approach rarely flies the missed approach procedure
as published. Instead, ATC will assign headings and altitudes that will weave the aircraft into the arriving traffic for a repeated approach attempt. The crew may also request an alternate destination, either a previously stated
alternate airport, or other suitable airport considering the prevailing weather conditions.
Qualifications
To fly under IFR, a pilot must have an
instrument rating, and must meet recency of experience requirements. In the United States, these recency of experience requirements include six instrument approaches, NAVAID intercepting and tracking, and
hold (aviation) procedures in the past six months. The aircraft must also be equipped and type-certified for instrument flight, and the related navigational equipment must have been inspected within a specific period of time prior to the instrument flight.
The UK differs from pilot licensing practice in the U.S. In the UK any pilot can decide to which flight rules he adheres given that the meteorological conditions for those rules are met. The pilot does need an instrument rating to fly in instrument meteorological conditions, and under IFR in controlled airspace. The upshot of this is that non-instrument qualified pilots can elect to fly under IFR in visual meteorological conditions outside controlled airspace. Compared to the rest of the world the UK's flight crew licensing regime is somewhat unusual in this respect by licensing for meteorological conditions and airspace, rather than flight rules. As a partial alternative to the
instrument rating, the UK issues an "IMC rating", the privileges of which include flight under IFR in controlled (classes D and E) airspace and flight outside controlled airspace in instrument meteorological conditions.
References
See also
Instrument flight rules - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Instrument flight rules (IFR) are a set of regulations and procedures for flying aircraft whereby navigation and obstacle clearance is maintained with reference to aircraft ...
Instrument rating - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Instrument rating refers to the qualifications that a pilot must have in order to fly under IFR (Instrument Flight Rules). It requires additional training and instruction beyond ...
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Ardmore Flying School
... Private Pilot theory, 2 weeks full time; Commercial Pilot theory, 10 weeks full time; Instrument Flight Rules theory, 3 weeks full ...
